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Choosing between a/an, the and zero article when speaking generally or specifically.
Articles help distinguish between specific and general meaning.
The choice of article depends largely on whether you are referring to a particular person or thing or to people and things in general.
I bought a car yesterday.
Я купил машину вчера.
A introduces one non-specific car.
The car is parked outside.
Машина припаркована снаружи.
The refers to the specific car already mentioned.
Cars are expensive to maintain.
Машины дорого обслуживать.
Cars refers to cars generally.
I need a doctor.
Мне нужен врач.
A introduces one non-specific doctor.
The doctor will see you now.
Врач сейчас вас примет.
The identifies a doctor who is specific in the situation.
Doctors need to communicate clearly with their patients.
Врачам нужно ясно общаться со своими пациентами.
Doctors refers to doctors as a group.
We ordered a pizza, and the pizza arrived twenty minutes later.
Мы заказали пиццу, и пиццу доставили через двадцать минут.
A introduces the pizza; the refers back to the now-specific pizza.
The information on the website is more useful than general information in the brochure.
Информация на сайте полезнее общей информации в брошюре.
The first noun is specific because it is identified by on the website; the second has a general meaning.
Use a/an when introducing a singular countable noun for the first time.
The indefinite article presents new information. Once the noun has been introduced, it usually becomes specific.
I saw a bird in my backyard.
Я увидел птицу у себя во дворе.
A introduces the singular countable noun bird for the first time.
She bought a new laptop last week.
Она купила новый ноутбук на прошлой неделе.
A introduces laptop as new information.
We found an old photo in the attic.
Мы нашли старую фотографию на чердаке.
An introduces the singular countable noun photo for the first time.
A man called while you were out.
Какой-то мужчина звонил, пока тебя не было.
A introduces a previously unidentified man.
A company in Seattle offered me a job.
Компания из Сиэтла предложила мне работу.
A introduces both company and job as new singular countable referents.
A neighbor left a package at our door.
Сосед оставил посылку у нашей двери.
Both singular countable nouns are introduced for the first time.
A researcher noticed an unusual pattern in the data.
Исследователь заметил необычную закономерность в данных.
A/an present new singular countable information.
A local business opened a new store downtown.
Местный бизнес открыл новый магазин в центре города.
The nouns business and store are introduced as new information.
Use the when referring to something that has already been mentioned or is known to both the speaker and listener.
After a noun has been introduced or identified, it normally takes the definite article.
I bought a book yesterday. The book is about space.
Я купил книгу вчера. Книга о космосе.
The refers back to the previously mentioned book.
She saw a dog in the park. The dog followed her home.
Она увидела собаку в парке. Собака пошла за ней домой.
The identifies the dog already introduced.
We rented a car. The car was surprisingly comfortable.
Мы арендовали машину. Машина оказалась удивительно удобной.
The refers to the previously introduced car.
A student asked a question. The question was difficult to answer.
Студент задал вопрос. На вопрос было трудно ответить.
The marks the noun as already identifiable from the previous sentence.
I ordered a pizza, and the delivery arrived thirty minutes later.
Я заказал пиццу, и доставка прибыла через тридцать минут.
The context makes the pizza and delivery identifiable.
We stopped at a gas station, and the station was almost empty.
Мы остановились на заправке, и на заправке почти никого не было.
The refers back to the previously introduced gas station.
She found a job in Denver. The position starts in September.
Она нашла работу в Денвере. Должность начинается в сентябре.
The position is identifiable because it refers to the job just mentioned.
The company announced a new policy, and the policy will take effect next month.
Компания объявила о новой политике, и эта политика вступит в силу в следующем месяце.
The makes the second reference definite and identifiable.
Use the zero article with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns when making general statements.
General statements refer to an entire class rather than to specific people or things.
Dogs need exercise.
Собакам нужны физические нагрузки.
Dogs refers to dogs generally, so no article is used.
Books can teach us about other cultures.
Книги могут рассказать нам о других культурах.
Books refers to books as a class.
Water is essential for human life.
Вода необходима для жизни человека.
Water is uncountable and is used generally.
Information is available online.
Информация доступна в интернете.
Information is an uncountable noun used in a general statement.
Students need enough sleep before an exam.
Студентам нужно достаточно спать перед экзаменом.
Students has generic plural meaning.
Coffee is popular in the United States.
Кофе популярен в США.
Coffee refers to the drink generally.
Electric cars are becoming more common across the country.
Электромобили становятся все более распространенными по всей стране.
Electric cars refers to the category generally.
Research requires patience, careful planning, and reliable data.
Исследования требуют терпения, тщательного планирования и надежных данных.
Research is uncountable and is used in a general statement.
Generic meaning can also be expressed with a singular noun using a/an or the.
Compare: "A tiger is a dangerous animal." and "The tiger is a dangerous animal." Both refer to the species rather than an individual tiger.
A tiger is a dangerous animal.
Тигр — опасное животное.
A tiger can represent the whole species.
A smartphone can be a useful tool for students.
Смартфон может быть полезным инструментом для студентов.
A singular countable noun can represent the class generally.
The tiger is a powerful predator.
Тигр — мощный хищник.
The tiger can also represent the species as a whole.
The computer has changed modern business.
Компьютер изменил современный бизнес.
The computer is a generic singular form referring to the class as a whole.
A good manager knows how to motivate a team.
Хороший менеджер знает, как мотивировать команду.
A good manager represents any manager with that characteristic.
The modern consumer expects fast access to information.
Современный потребитель ожидает быстрого доступа к информации.
The modern consumer is a formal generic singular construction.
A dog can be an excellent companion for an older person.
Собака может быть отличным компаньоном для пожилого человека.
A dog represents dogs generally rather than one particular dog.
The whale is increasingly affected by changes in the marine environment.
Киты все больше страдают от изменений морской среды.
The whale is a formal generic construction referring to the species.
Use the when a noun is made specific by a phrase or clause that identifies it.
A following prepositional phrase, infinitive phrase or relative clause often makes a noun definite because it identifies exactly which person or thing is meant.
The book on my desk is new.
Книга на моем столе новая.
The prepositional phrase on my desk identifies the book.
The woman in the red jacket is my neighbor.
Женщина в красной куртке — моя соседка.
The phrase in the red jacket specifies which woman is meant.
The car parked in front of the house belongs to me.
Машина, припаркованная перед домом, принадлежит мне.
The participial phrase identifies the specific car.
The restaurant we visited last night was excellent.
Ресторан, который мы посетили прошлой ночью, был превосходным.
The relative clause identifies the restaurant.
The apartment near the subway is already rented.
Квартира возле метро уже сдана.
The phrase near the subway identifies which apartment.
The documents to be reviewed are on my desk.
Документы, которые нужно проверить, лежат на моем столе.
The infinitive phrase to be reviewed makes the reference specific.
The proposal that the committee approved will be implemented next month.
Предложение, которое одобрил комитет, будет реализовано в следующем месяце.
The relative clause identifies one specific proposal.
The employees working on the new software release will receive additional training.
Сотрудники, работающие над новой версией программного обеспечения, пройдут дополнительное обучение.
The participial phrase limits the reference to a particular group of employees.
The same noun may take a/an, the or no article depending on the context.
Article choice depends on meaning rather than on the noun itself. The surrounding context determines whether the reference is specific or general.
I need a pen.
Мне нужна ручка.
A introduces one non-specific pen.
Where is the pen you gave me?
Где ручка, которую ты мне дал?
The is used because the relative clause identifies the pen.
Pens are cheap.
Ручки дешевые.
Pens has a generic plural meaning and takes zero article.
I ordered coffee.
Я заказал кофе.
Coffee is uncountable and is not specific in this context.
The coffee on the counter is mine.
Кофе на стойке — мое.
The makes coffee specific because the phrase on the counter identifies it.
She wants to rent an apartment downtown.
Она хочет снять квартиру в центре.
An introduces one non-specific apartment.
The apartment she found has a balcony.
В квартире, которую она нашла, есть балкон.
The apartment is now specific because it is identified by the relative clause.
Apartments downtown are expensive, but the apartment we viewed yesterday was within our budget.
Квартиры в центре дорогие, но квартира, которую мы смотрели вчера, была нам по карману.
The first noun is generic plural; the second is specific because of the relative clause.
Changing the article often changes the meaning of a sentence.
Compare: "I bought a car.", "I washed the car." and "Cars are expensive." Each sentence expresses a different relationship between the speaker and the noun.
I bought a car.
Я купил машину.
A introduces one non-specific car.
I washed the car.
Я помыл машину.
The identifies a specific car, normally one already known from context.
Cars are expensive.
Машины дорогие.
Zero article gives cars a general meaning.
I need a coffee.
Мне нужен кофе.
In American English, a coffee can mean one serving or one cup of coffee in a suitable context.
The coffee is on the table.
Кофе стоит на столе.
The identifies a particular serving of coffee.
Coffee is one of my favorite drinks.
Кофе — один из моих любимых напитков.
Zero article gives coffee a general meaning.
She is looking for a job.
Она ищет работу.
A job means one non-specific employment opportunity.
She found the job she wanted.
Она нашла работу, которую хотела.
The job is specific because the relative clause identifies it.
Choose articles according to meaning, not according to the noun alone.
Many learner errors occur because articles are chosen by memorizing nouns instead of considering whether the noun is specific, general or identifiable.
I bought a new car.
Я купил новую машину.
Use a when introducing one non-specific singular countable noun.
The car is parked outside.
Машина припаркована снаружи.
Use the when the listener can identify the specific car.
Cars are expensive to maintain.
Машины дорого обслуживать.
Use the zero article for a general plural statement.
I need information about the program.
Мне нужна информация о программе.
Information is uncountable, so it does not take a/an.
The information on this page is outdated.
Информация на этой странице устарела.
The is required because on this page identifies specific information.
She lives in Denver.
Она живет в Денвере.
Most city names are used without an article.
She went to the store near her apartment.
Она пошла в магазин возле своей квартиры.
The is needed because the phrase near her apartment identifies the specific store.
The article should be chosen according to the meaning of the noun phrase, not simply memorized as part of the noun.
Артикль следует выбирать в соответствии со значением именной группы, а не просто заучивать вместе с существительным.
The sentence summarizes the main principle of article choice.