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Frequent learner mistakes involving conjunctions and linking expressions.
Use and to connect items that are included together and or to present alternatives.
For example, You can have tea and coffee includes both, while You can have tea or coffee presents alternatives.
Use but to connect ideas that contrast rather than simply adding related information.
For example, She is tired but she is working contrasts the two ideas.
Because introduces a reason, while so introduces a result.
For example, We stayed home because it was raining versus It was raining, so we stayed home.
Although introduces a concessive subordinate clause, while but coordinates contrasting clauses.
For example, Although it was raining, we went out. Do not normally combine although and but in the same basic construction.
Although is a conjunction followed by a clause, while despite is normally a preposition followed by a noun phrase or gerund.
For example, Although it was raining, we went out versus Despite the rain, we went out.
Because is a conjunction followed by a clause, while because of is a prepositional expression followed by a noun phrase.
For example, We stayed home because it rained versus We stayed home because of the rain.
Since can introduce a reason when its meaning is because.
For example, Since you are here, we can begin.
Since can introduce a starting point in time and should not automatically be interpreted as because.
For example, I have lived here since I was a child.
While can introduce a time clause or contrast between two situations.
For example, While I was cooking, he called refers to time, while While I like coffee, I prefer tea expresses contrast.
As can function as a conjunction or preposition in structures expressing role, function, or comparison, while like commonly introduces a noun phrase in comparisons.
For example, As your teacher, I recommend this book versus He runs like his father.
If generally introduces a condition, while whether introduces alternatives or uncertainty between possibilities.
For example, If it rains, we will stay home versus I do not know whether it will rain.
Unless generally means if not, but the two forms are not always interchangeable in every context.
For example, Unless you hurry, you will be late is equivalent to If you do not hurry, you will be late.
In case introduces a precaution against a possible event, while if introduces a condition for an event or result.
For example, Take an umbrella in case it rains differs from We will stay home if it rains.
Even if introduces a hypothetical or possible condition, while even though introduces a fact that contrasts with the main clause.
For example, Even if it rains, we will go versus Even though it is raining, we are going.
Either...or presents two or more alternatives.
For example, You can either stay here or come with us.
Neither...nor presents two negative alternatives and normally avoids an additional negative marker.
For example, Neither John nor Mary was available.
Both...and connects two elements that are included together.
For example, Both Sarah and John attended the meeting.
Not only...but also adds emphasis while connecting two parallel elements or clauses.
For example, She is not only intelligent but also hardworking.
Coordinated elements should normally have parallel grammatical form.
For example, She likes swimming, running, and cycling uses parallel gerund forms.
With structures such as either...or and neither...nor, verb agreement can depend on the nearest subject when subjects differ in number.
For example, Either the teacher or the students are responsible, but Either the students or the teacher is responsible.
A comma is commonly used before and, but, or, so, yet, or for when the conjunction joins two independent clauses.
For example, I called him, but he did not answer.
Do not normally use two conjunctions together when one already expresses the intended relationship.
For example, Because it was raining, we stayed home is correct; Because it was raining, so we stayed home is normally incorrect.
Although and but should not normally be combined to mark the same contrast in one simple sentence.
Use Although it was expensive, we bought it or It was expensive, but we bought it.
Because and so should not normally be used together to express the same cause-result relationship.
Use Because it was late, we left or It was late, so we left.
Different conjunctions and linking expressions vary in meaning, formality, and typical context.
For example, though and although are common in general English, whereas whereas and on condition that can have more specialized or formal uses.
Choose conjunctions according to their grammatical pattern and precise relationship between clauses or ideas.
Common mistakes include confusing because with because of, although with despite, if with whether, in case with if, combining although with but, combining because with so, and breaking parallel structure after coordinating conjunctions.