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Using because, since, as, so, therefore and similar expressions.
Practice: build the sentences →English expresses reason by explaining why something happens and result by explaining what follows from a situation.
Because, since, and as commonly introduce reason clauses, while so, therefore, thus, consequently, and as a result commonly express results.
We stayed home because it was raining.
Мы остались дома, потому что шёл дождь.
"Because" introduces the reason for staying home.
It was raining, so we stayed home.
Шёл дождь, поэтому мы остались дома.
"So" introduces the result of the rain.
Since you are here, we can begin.
Поскольку ты здесь, мы можем начать.
"Since" introduces a reason that is already known.
The roads were closed; therefore, we stayed home.
Дороги были закрыты; поэтому мы остались дома.
"Therefore" introduces a logical result.
As it was getting late, we decided to leave.
Поскольку становилось поздно, мы решили уйти.
"As" introduces a reason that is background information.
The evidence was incomplete; thus, the researchers repeated the experiment.
Доказательства были неполными; таким образом, исследователи повторили эксперимент.
"Thus" introduces a formal result.
The company lost several clients. Consequently, it reduced its workforce.
Компания потеряла несколько клиентов. Следовательно, она сократила персонал.
"Consequently" introduces a formal consequence.
The roads were flooded. As a result, the school was closed.
Дороги были затоплены. В результате школа была закрыта.
"As a result" introduces a consequence.
Because introduces a subordinate clause that gives the reason for the situation in the main clause.
For example, We stayed home because it was raining.
We stayed home because it was raining.
Мы остались дома, потому что шёл дождь.
"Because" introduces the reason for staying home.
She was happy because she passed the exam.
Она была счастлива, потому что сдала экзамен.
"Because" introduces the reason for her happiness.
He apologized because he was late.
Он извинился, потому что опоздал.
"Because" introduces the reason for apologizing.
I called you because I needed help.
Я позвонил тебе, потому что мне нужна была помощь.
"Because" introduces the reason for calling.
They left early because they were tired.
Они ушли рано, потому что устали.
"Because" introduces the reason for leaving early.
She smiled because she had good news.
Она улыбнулась, потому что у неё были хорошие новости.
"Because" introduces the reason for smiling.
We took a taxi because we were late.
Мы взяли такси, потому что опаздывали.
"Because" introduces the reason for taking a taxi.
He was nervous because it was his first interview.
Он нервничал, потому что это было его первое собеседование.
"Because" introduces the reason for nervousness.
Because of is a prepositional expression followed by a noun phrase, pronoun, or gerund rather than a finite clause.
For example, We stayed home because of the rain and He was late because of missing the bus.
We stayed home because of the rain.
Мы остались дома из-за дождя.
"Because of" is followed by the noun phrase "the rain".
He was late because of missing the bus.
Он опоздал из-за того, что пропустил автобус.
"Because of" is followed by the gerund phrase "missing the bus".
The flight was delayed because of bad weather.
Рейс был задержан из-за плохой погоды.
"Because of" is followed by the noun phrase "bad weather".
She was absent because of illness.
Она отсутствовала из-за болезни.
"Because of" is followed by the noun phrase "illness".
The match was cancelled because of the storm.
Матч был отменён из-за бури.
"Because of" is followed by the noun phrase "the storm".
He lost his job because of the economic crisis.
Он потерял работу из-за экономического кризиса.
"Because of" is followed by the noun phrase "the economic crisis".
We were late because of the traffic.
Мы опоздали из-за пробок.
"Because of" is followed by the noun phrase "the traffic".
She missed the meeting because of a prior commitment.
Она пропустила собрание из-за ранее запланированного обязательства.
"Because of" is followed by the noun phrase "a prior commitment".
Because introduces a clause, while because of introduces a noun phrase or gerund.
Compare We left because it was late with We left because of the late hour.
We left because it was late.
Мы ушли, потому что было поздно.
"Because" introduces a finite clause "it was late".
We left because of the late hour.
Мы ушли из-за позднего часа.
"Because of" introduces a noun phrase "the late hour".
She was happy because she passed the exam.
Она была счастлива, потому что сдала экзамен.
"Because" introduces a finite clause.
She was happy because of her exam results.
Она была счастлива из-за результатов экзамена.
"Because of" introduces a noun phrase.
He apologized because he was late.
Он извинился, потому что опоздал.
"Because" introduces a finite clause.
He apologized because of his lateness.
Он извинился из-за своего опоздания.
"Because of" introduces a noun phrase.
We stayed home because it was raining.
Мы остались дома, потому что шёл дождь.
"Because" introduces a finite clause.
We stayed home because of the rain.
Мы остались дома из-за дождя.
"Because of" introduces a noun phrase.
Since can introduce a reason when the reason is already known, obvious, or treated as background information.
For example, Since you are here, we can begin.
Since you are here, we can begin.
Поскольку ты здесь, мы можем начать.
"Since" introduces a reason that is already known.
Since it was late, we went home.
Поскольку было поздно, мы пошли домой.
"Since" introduces a reason that is background information.
Since you have experience, you should lead the project.
Поскольку у тебя есть опыт, ты должен возглавить проект.
"Since" introduces a reason that is obvious.
Since the weather was bad, we stayed indoors.
Поскольку погода была плохой, мы остались дома.
"Since" introduces a reason that is known.
Since she was tired, she went to bed early.
Поскольку она устала, она рано легла спать.
"Since" introduces a reason that is backgrounded.
Since we have no time, we must hurry.
Поскольку у нас нет времени, мы должны спешить.
"Since" introduces a reason that is obvious.
Since he was the only candidate, he was elected.
Поскольку он был единственным кандидатом, его избрали.
"Since" introduces a reason that is known.
Since the roads were closed, we took a different route.
Поскольку дороги были закрыты, мы поехали другим маршрутом.
"Since" introduces a reason that is background information.
As can introduce a reason, often when the reason is background information rather than the main focus.
For example, As it was getting late, we decided to leave.
As it was getting late, we decided to leave.
Поскольку становилось поздно, мы решили уйти.
"As" introduces a reason as background information.
As she was tired, she went to bed early.
Поскольку она устала, она рано легла спать.
"As" introduces a reason that is backgrounded.
As it was raining, we stayed home.
Поскольку шёл дождь, мы остались дома.
"As" introduces a reason that is already known.
As he was the only one who knew the way, we followed him.
Поскольку он был единственным, кто знал дорогу, мы последовали за ним.
"As" introduces a reason that is background information.
As the weather was bad, we cancelled the picnic.
Поскольку погода была плохой, мы отменили пикник.
"As" introduces a reason that is known.
As she had no money, she could not buy the ticket.
Поскольку у неё не было денег, она не могла купить билет.
"As" introduces a reason that is backgrounded.
As the meeting was cancelled, we went home early.
Поскольку собрание отменили, мы пошли домой рано.
"As" introduces a reason that is already known.
As he was feeling unwell, he left the party early.
Поскольку он плохо себя чувствовал, он рано ушёл с вечеринки.
"As" introduces a reason that is background information.
Because, since, and as can all introduce reasons, but they differ in emphasis, information status, and register.
Because is often the clearest choice for a direct reason, while since and as can present the reason as more backgrounded or obvious.
We stayed home because it was raining.
Мы остались дома, потому что шёл дождь.
"Because" gives the direct reason.
Since you are here, we can begin.
Поскольку ты здесь, мы можем начать.
"Since" presents the reason as already known.
As it was getting late, we decided to leave.
Поскольку становилось поздно, мы решили уйти.
"As" presents the reason as background information.
She was happy because she passed the exam.
Она была счастлива, потому что сдала экзамен.
"Because" is the clearest choice for a direct reason.
Since she had no money, she could not buy the ticket.
Поскольку у неё не было денег, она не могла купить билет.
"Since" presents the reason as obvious or known.
As he was feeling unwell, he left the party early.
Поскольку он плохо себя чувствовал, он рано ушёл с вечеринки.
"As" presents the reason as background.
He apologized because he was late.
Он извинился, потому что опоздал.
"Because" gives the direct reason.
Since the weather was bad, we stayed indoors.
Поскольку погода была плохой, мы остались дома.
"Since" presents the reason as already known.
For can connect an independent clause that gives a reason or explanation, especially in formal or literary English.
For example, We left early, for the weather was deteriorating.
We left early, for the weather was deteriorating.
Мы ушли рано, ибо погода ухудшалась.
"For" introduces a reason in a formal or literary style.
She was happy, for she had passed the exam.
Она была счастлива, ибо сдала экзамен.
"For" introduces a reason in a formal style.
He did not answer, for he was angry.
Он не ответил, ибо был сердит.
"For" introduces a reason in a formal style.
They stayed home, for it was raining heavily.
Они остались дома, ибо шёл сильный дождь.
"For" introduces a reason in a formal style.
She apologized, for she knew she was wrong.
Она извинилась, ибо знала, что была неправа.
"For" introduces a reason in a formal style.
We took a taxi, for we were late.
Мы взяли такси, ибо опаздывали.
"For" introduces a reason in a formal style.
He was nervous, for it was his first interview.
Он нервничал, ибо это было его первое собеседование.
"For" introduces a reason in a formal style.
She smiled, for she had good news.
Она улыбнулась, ибо у неё были хорошие новости.
"For" introduces a reason in a formal style.
So can coordinate clauses when the second clause expresses the result of the first.
For example, It was raining, so we stayed home.
It was raining, so we stayed home.
Шёл дождь, поэтому мы остались дома.
"So" coordinates the result clause.
She was tired, so she went to bed early.
Она устала, поэтому рано легла спать.
"So" introduces the result of being tired.
He studied hard, so he passed the exam.
Он усердно учился, поэтому сдал экзамен.
"So" introduces the result of studying hard.
The traffic was bad, so we were late.
Пробки были ужасные, поэтому мы опоздали.
"So" introduces the result of bad traffic.
She missed the bus, so she took a taxi.
Она опоздала на автобус, поэтому взяла такси.
"So" introduces the result of missing the bus.
It was cold, so we turned on the heating.
Было холодно, поэтому мы включили отопление.
"So" introduces the result of cold weather.
He forgot his keys, so he could not enter.
Он забыл ключи, поэтому не мог войти.
"So" introduces the result of forgetting keys.
The food was delicious, so we ordered more.
Еда была вкусной, поэтому мы заказали ещё.
"So" introduces the result of good food.
So + adjective or adverb + that introduces a result clause describing the consequence of a degree.
For example, It was so cold that we stayed inside.
It was so cold that we stayed inside.
Было так холодно, что мы остались дома.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
She was so tired that she fell asleep immediately.
Она была так устала, что сразу заснула.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
The book was so interesting that I read it in one sitting.
Книга была такой интересной, что я прочитал её за один раз.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
He spoke so quickly that I could not understand him.
Он говорил так быстро, что я не мог его понять.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
The music was so loud that the neighbours complained.
Музыка была такой громкой, что соседи пожаловались.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
She was so happy that she started crying.
Она была так счастлива, что начала плакать.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
The problem was so difficult that nobody could solve it.
Проблема была такой трудной, что никто не мог её решить.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
He ran so fast that he broke the record.
Он бежал так быстро, что побил рекорд.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
Such + noun phrase + that can introduce a result clause based on the degree or nature of something.
For example, It was such a difficult problem that nobody could solve it.
It was such a difficult problem that nobody could solve it.
Это была такая трудная проблема, что никто не мог её решить.
"Such ... that" introduces a result clause based on the nature of something.
She is such a talented singer that everyone admires her.
Она такая талантливая певица, что все ею восхищаются.
"Such ... that" introduces a result clause based on the nature of something.
It was such a long meeting that everyone became exhausted.
Это было такое долгое собрание, что все измучились.
"Such ... that" introduces a result clause based on the nature of something.
He has such a good memory that he never forgets anything.
У него такая хорошая память, что он никогда ничего не забывает.
"Such ... that" introduces a result clause based on the nature of something.
They are such kind people that everyone loves them.
Они такие добрые люди, что все их любят.
"Such ... that" introduces a result clause based on the nature of something.
It was such a beautiful day that we decided to go to the beach.
Это был такой прекрасный день, что мы решили пойти на пляж.
"Such ... that" introduces a result clause based on the nature of something.
She made such a delicious cake that everyone asked for the recipe.
Она испекла такой вкусный торт, что все попросили рецепт.
"Such ... that" introduces a result clause based on the nature of something.
He told such a funny story that we could not stop laughing.
Он рассказал такую смешную историю, что мы не могли перестать смеяться.
"Such ... that" introduces a result clause based on the nature of something.
Therefore introduces a result or logical conclusion based on preceding information.
For example, The evidence was incomplete; therefore, the researchers repeated the experiment.
The evidence was incomplete; therefore, the researchers repeated the experiment.
Доказательства были неполными; поэтому исследователи повторили эксперимент.
"Therefore" introduces a logical conclusion.
The roads were closed; therefore, we stayed home.
Дороги были закрыты; поэтому мы остались дома.
"Therefore" introduces a result.
The company lost money; therefore, it reduced its staff.
Компания потеряла деньги; поэтому она сократила персонал.
"Therefore" introduces a logical conclusion.
The data were inconsistent; therefore, the study was repeated.
Данные были противоречивы; поэтому исследование было повторено.
"Therefore" introduces a result.
It was raining heavily; therefore, the match was cancelled.
Шёл сильный дождь; поэтому матч был отменён.
"Therefore" introduces a result.
The system failed; therefore, all operations were suspended.
Система отказала; поэтому все операции были приостановлены.
"Therefore" introduces a logical conclusion.
The demand increased; therefore, prices rose.
Спрос увеличился; поэтому цены выросли.
"Therefore" introduces a result.
The theory was flawed; therefore, it was rejected.
Теория была ошибочной; поэтому она была отвергнута.
"Therefore" introduces a logical conclusion.
Thus can introduce a result, consequence, or logical conclusion and is common in formal writing.
For example, The sample was too small; thus, the results were inconclusive.
The sample was too small; thus, the results were inconclusive.
Выборка была слишком маленькой; таким образом, результаты были неубедительными.
"Thus" introduces a result or conclusion in formal writing.
The evidence was weak; thus, the case was dismissed.
Доказательства были слабыми; таким образом, дело было закрыто.
"Thus" introduces a result or conclusion.
The data were incomplete; thus, further research was required.
Данные были неполными; таким образом, потребовалось дальнейшее исследование.
"Thus" introduces a result or conclusion.
The theory was flawed; thus, it was rejected.
Теория была ошибочной; таким образом, она была отвергнута.
"Thus" introduces a result or conclusion.
The demand increased; thus, prices rose.
Спрос увеличился; таким образом, цены выросли.
"Thus" introduces a result or conclusion.
The system failed; thus, operations were suspended.
Система отказала; таким образом, операции были приостановлены.
"Thus" introduces a result or conclusion.
The company lost money; thus, it reduced its staff.
Компания потеряла деньги; таким образом, она сократила персонал.
"Thus" introduces a result or conclusion.
The weather was bad; thus, the event was cancelled.
Погода была плохой; таким образом, мероприятие было отменено.
"Thus" introduces a result or conclusion.
Consequently introduces a formal consequence that follows from previously stated information.
For example, The company lost several clients. Consequently, it reduced its workforce.
The company lost several clients. Consequently, it reduced its workforce.
Компания потеряла несколько клиентов. Следовательно, она сократила персонал.
"Consequently" introduces a formal consequence.
The evidence was insufficient. Consequently, the case was dismissed.
Доказательств было недостаточно. Следовательно, дело было закрыто.
"Consequently" introduces a formal consequence.
The weather was bad. Consequently, the event was cancelled.
Погода была плохой. Следовательно, мероприятие было отменено.
"Consequently" introduces a formal consequence.
He missed the deadline. Consequently, he lost the contract.
Он пропустил срок. Следовательно, он потерял контракт.
"Consequently" introduces a formal consequence.
The data were inconsistent. Consequently, the study was repeated.
Данные были противоречивы. Следовательно, исследование было повторено.
"Consequently" introduces a formal consequence.
The system failed. Consequently, all operations were suspended.
Система отказала. Следовательно, все операции были приостановлены.
"Consequently" introduces a formal consequence.
The demand increased. Consequently, prices rose.
Спрос увеличился. Следовательно, цены выросли.
"Consequently" introduces a formal consequence.
The theory was flawed. Consequently, it was rejected.
Теория была ошибочной. Следовательно, она была отвергнута.
"Consequently" introduces a formal consequence.
As a result introduces a consequence caused by a previously mentioned situation.
For example, The roads were flooded. As a result, the school was closed.
The roads were flooded. As a result, the school was closed.
Дороги были затоплены. В результате школа была закрыта.
"As a result" introduces a consequence.
The company lost several clients. As a result, it reduced its staff.
Компания потеряла несколько клиентов. В результате она сократила персонал.
"As a result" introduces a consequence.
It rained heavily. As a result, the match was cancelled.
Шёл сильный дождь. В результате матч был отменён.
"As a result" introduces a consequence.
She missed the bus. As a result, she was late for work.
Она опоздала на автобус. В результате она опоздала на работу.
"As a result" introduces a consequence.
The evidence was weak. As a result, the case was dismissed.
Доказательства были слабыми. В результате дело было закрыто.
"As a result" introduces a consequence.
He studied hard. As a result, he passed the exam.
Он усердно учился. В результате он сдал экзамен.
"As a result" introduces a consequence.
The traffic was terrible. As a result, we missed our flight.
Пробки были ужасными. В результате мы опоздали на самолёт.
"As a result" introduces a consequence.
The company invested heavily. As a result, it expanded rapidly.
Компания много инвестировала. В результате она быстро расширилась.
"As a result" introduces a consequence.
Hence introduces a result or conclusion and is especially common in formal and technical writing.
For example, The data were incomplete; hence, no firm conclusion could be drawn.
The data were incomplete; hence, no firm conclusion could be drawn.
Данные были неполными; следовательно, нельзя было сделать твёрдый вывод.
"Hence" introduces a result or conclusion in formal writing.
The sample was too small; hence, the results were inconclusive.
Выборка была слишком маленькой; следовательно, результаты были неубедительными.
"Hence" introduces a conclusion in formal writing.
The evidence was weak; hence, the case was dismissed.
Доказательства были слабыми; следовательно, дело было закрыто.
"Hence" introduces a conclusion in formal writing.
The data were incomplete; hence, further research was required.
Данные были неполными; следовательно, потребовалось дальнейшее исследование.
"Hence" introduces a conclusion in formal writing.
The theory was flawed; hence, it was rejected.
Теория была ошибочной; следовательно, она была отвергнута.
"Hence" introduces a conclusion in formal writing.
The demand increased; hence, prices rose.
Спрос увеличился; следовательно, цены выросли.
"Hence" introduces a conclusion in formal writing.
The system failed; hence, operations were suspended.
Система отказала; следовательно, операции были приостановлены.
"Hence" introduces a conclusion in formal writing.
The company lost money; hence, it reduced its staff.
Компания потеряла деньги; следовательно, она сократила персонал.
"Hence" introduces a conclusion in formal writing.
So is a coordinating conjunction, while therefore is a sentence connector with different punctuation and syntactic behavior.
Compare It was late, so we left with It was late; therefore, we left.
It was late, so we left.
Было поздно, поэтому мы ушли.
"So" is a coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses with a comma.
It was late; therefore, we left.
Было поздно; поэтому мы ушли.
"Therefore" is a sentence connector requiring a semicolon or full stop.
The roads were closed, so we stayed home.
Дороги были закрыты, поэтому мы остались дома.
"So" is a coordinating conjunction.
The roads were closed; therefore, we stayed home.
Дороги были закрыты; поэтому мы остались дома.
"Therefore" is a sentence connector.
She studied hard, so she passed the exam.
Она усердно училась, поэтому сдала экзамен.
"So" is a coordinating conjunction.
She studied hard; therefore, she passed the exam.
Она усердно училась; поэтому она сдала экзамен.
"Therefore" is a sentence connector.
It was raining, so we took a taxi.
Шёл дождь, поэтому мы взяли такси.
"So" is a coordinating conjunction.
It was raining; therefore, we took a taxi.
Шёл дождь; поэтому мы взяли такси.
"Therefore" is a sentence connector.
Therefore can occur at the beginning, middle, or end of a clause, with punctuation depending on its position.
For example, Therefore, we left; We therefore left; and We left, therefore.
Therefore, we left early.
Поэтому мы ушли рано.
"Therefore" at the beginning of the clause.
We therefore left early.
Мы поэтому ушли рано.
"Therefore" in the middle of the clause after the subject.
We left early, therefore.
Мы ушли рано, поэтому.
"Therefore" at the end of the clause, uncommon but possible.
Therefore, the project was cancelled.
Поэтому проект был отменён.
"Therefore" at the beginning of the clause.
The project was therefore cancelled.
Проект поэтому был отменён.
"Therefore" in the middle of the clause.
The company lost money; therefore, it reduced its staff.
Компания потеряла деньги; поэтому она сократила персонал.
"Therefore" after a semicolon at the beginning of the second clause.
The company therefore reduced its staff.
Компания поэтому сократила персонал.
"Therefore" in the middle of the clause after the subject.
The evidence was weak; therefore, the case was dismissed.
Доказательства были слабыми; поэтому дело было закрыто.
"Therefore" after a semicolon at the beginning of the second clause.
A reason clause can precede the main clause, and a comma is commonly used to separate the two clauses.
For example, Because it was raining, we stayed home.
Because it was raining, we stayed home.
Поскольку шёл дождь, мы остались дома.
Reason clause before the main clause, separated by a comma.
Since you are here, we can begin.
Поскольку ты здесь, мы можем начать.
Reason clause before the main clause, separated by a comma.
As it was getting late, we decided to leave.
Поскольку становилось поздно, мы решили уйти.
Reason clause before the main clause, separated by a comma.
Because she was tired, she went to bed early.
Поскольку она устала, она рано легла спать.
Reason clause before the main clause, separated by a comma.
Since the weather was bad, we stayed indoors.
Поскольку погода была плохой, мы остались дома.
Reason clause before the main clause, separated by a comma.
As he was the only one who knew the way, we followed him.
Поскольку он был единственным, кто знал дорогу, мы последовали за ним.
Reason clause before the main clause, separated by a comma.
Because it was cold, we turned on the heating.
Поскольку было холодно, мы включили отопление.
Reason clause before the main clause, separated by a comma.
Since she had no money, she could not buy the ticket.
Поскольку у неё не было денег, она не могла купить билет.
Reason clause before the main clause, separated by a comma.
A reason clause can follow the main clause without a comma when it is closely integrated with the main clause.
For example, We stayed home because it was raining.
We stayed home because it was raining.
Мы остались дома, потому что шёл дождь.
Reason clause after the main clause, no comma.
She was happy because she passed the exam.
Она была счастлива, потому что сдала экзамен.
Reason clause after the main clause, no comma.
He apologized because he was late.
Он извинился, потому что опоздал.
Reason clause after the main clause, no comma.
I called you because I needed help.
Я позвонил тебе, потому что мне нужна была помощь.
Reason clause after the main clause, no comma.
They left early because they were tired.
Они ушли рано, потому что устали.
Reason clause after the main clause, no comma.
She smiled because she had good news.
Она улыбнулась, потому что у неё были хорошие новости.
Reason clause after the main clause, no comma.
We took a taxi because we were late.
Мы взяли такси, потому что опаздывали.
Reason clause after the main clause, no comma.
He was nervous because it was his first interview.
Он нервничал, потому что это было его первое собеседование.
Reason clause after the main clause, no comma.
A reason explains why an event happens, while a result describes what happens because of it.
For example, Because it rained, we stayed home expresses reason, while It rained, so we stayed home expresses result.
Because it rained, we stayed home.
Поскольку шёл дождь, мы остались дома.
Reason: the rain explains why we stayed home.
It rained, so we stayed home.
Шёл дождь, поэтому мы остались дома.
Result: staying home is the consequence of the rain.
Because she was tired, she went to bed early.
Поскольку она устала, она рано легла спать.
Reason: tiredness explains why she went to bed early.
She was tired, so she went to bed early.
Она устала, поэтому рано легла спать.
Result: going to bed early is the consequence of tiredness.
Because he studied hard, he passed the exam.
Поскольку он усердно учился, он сдал экзамен.
Reason: studying hard explains why he passed.
He studied hard, so he passed the exam.
Он усердно учился, поэтому сдал экзамен.
Result: passing is the consequence of studying hard.
Because the traffic was bad, we were late.
Поскольку пробки были ужасные, мы опоздали.
Reason: traffic explains why we were late.
The traffic was bad, so we were late.
Пробки были ужасные, поэтому мы опоздали.
Result: being late is the consequence of the traffic.
Due to is a prepositional expression that introduces a noun phrase and is common in formal English.
For example, The flight was delayed due to bad weather.
The flight was delayed due to bad weather.
Рейс был задержан из-за плохой погоды.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase "bad weather".
The match was cancelled due to the rain.
Матч был отменён из-за дождя.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
She was absent due to illness.
Она отсутствовала из-за болезни.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
The event was postponed due to unforeseen circumstances.
Мероприятие было отложено из-за непредвиденных обстоятельств.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
He lost his job due to the economic crisis.
Он потерял работу из-за экономического кризиса.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
We were late due to the traffic.
Мы опоздали из-за пробок.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
The delay was due to technical problems.
Задержка была из-за технических проблем.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
The company closed due to financial difficulties.
Компания закрылась из-за финансовых трудностей.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
Owing to introduces a noun phrase expressing a reason or cause and is generally more formal.
For example, The event was cancelled owing to heavy rain.
The event was cancelled owing to heavy rain.
Мероприятие было отменено из-за сильного дождя.
"Owing to" introduces a noun phrase and is formal.
The flight was delayed owing to bad weather.
Рейс был задержан из-за плохой погоды.
"Owing to" introduces a noun phrase and is formal.
She was absent owing to illness.
Она отсутствовала из-за болезни.
"Owing to" introduces a noun phrase and is formal.
The match was postponed owing to the storm.
Матч был отложен из-за бури.
"Owing to" introduces a noun phrase and is formal.
He lost his job owing to the economic crisis.
Он потерял работу из-за экономического кризиса.
"Owing to" introduces a noun phrase and is formal.
We were late owing to the traffic.
Мы опоздали из-за пробок.
"Owing to" introduces a noun phrase and is formal.
The delay was owing to technical problems.
Задержка была из-за технических проблем.
"Owing to" introduces a noun phrase and is formal.
The company closed owing to financial difficulties.
Компания закрылась из-за финансовых трудностей.
"Owing to" introduces a noun phrase and is formal.
Due to normally precedes a noun phrase, while because introduces a finite clause.
Compare The match was cancelled because it was raining with The match was cancelled due to the rain.
The match was cancelled because it was raining.
Матч был отменён, потому что шёл дождь.
"Because" introduces a finite clause.
The match was cancelled due to the rain.
Матч был отменён из-за дождя.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
She was absent because she was ill.
Она отсутствовала, потому что была больна.
"Because" introduces a finite clause.
She was absent due to illness.
Она отсутствовала из-за болезни.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
The flight was delayed because the weather was bad.
Рейс был задержан, потому что погода была плохой.
"Because" introduces a finite clause.
The flight was delayed due to bad weather.
Рейс был задержан из-за плохой погоды.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
We were late because the traffic was terrible.
Мы опоздали, потому что пробки были ужасные.
"Because" introduces a finite clause.
We were late due to the terrible traffic.
Мы опоздали из-за ужасных пробок.
"Due to" introduces a noun phrase.
Due to and owing to have similar meanings, although owing to is more strongly associated with formal written style.
Both can introduce a noun phrase giving the reason for an event.
The flight was delayed due to bad weather.
Рейс был задержан из-за плохой погоды.
"Due to" is common in formal and everyday English.
The flight was delayed owing to bad weather.
Рейс был задержан из-за плохой погоды.
"Owing to" is more strongly associated with formal written style.
The event was cancelled due to heavy rain.
Мероприятие было отменено из-за сильного дождя.
"Due to" is common in formal and everyday English.
The event was cancelled owing to heavy rain.
Мероприятие было отменено из-за сильного дождя.
"Owing to" is more strongly associated with formal written style.
She was absent due to illness.
Она отсутствовала из-за болезни.
"Due to" is common in formal and everyday English.
She was absent owing to illness.
Она отсутствовала из-за болезни.
"Owing to" is more strongly associated with formal written style.
The delay was due to technical problems.
Задержка была из-за технических проблем.
"Due to" is common in formal and everyday English.
The delay was owing to technical problems.
Задержка была из-за технических проблем.
"Owing to" is more strongly associated with formal written style.
Therefore does not normally introduce a subordinate finite clause in the same way as because.
For example, Therefore, we left is possible, while Therefore we were tired is not an ordinary equivalent of Because we were tired.
Therefore, we left.
Поэтому мы ушли.
"Therefore" introduces a result as a sentence connector.
Therefore we were tired.
Поэтому мы устали.
Incorrect: "Therefore" does not introduce a subordinate clause like "because".
The evidence was weak; therefore, the case was dismissed.
Доказательства были слабыми; поэтому дело было закрыто.
"Therefore" is a sentence connector, not a subordinating conjunction.
Because we were tired, we left.
Поскольку мы устали, мы ушли.
"Because" introduces a subordinate reason clause.
Therefore, the project was cancelled.
Поэтому проект был отменён.
"Therefore" introduces a result as a sentence connector.
The project was cancelled; therefore, we went home.
Проект был отменён; поэтому мы пошли домой.
"Therefore" is used as a sentence connector.
Because the project was cancelled, we went home.
Поскольку проект был отменён, мы пошли домой.
"Because" introduces a subordinate reason clause.
It was raining; therefore, we stayed inside.
Шёл дождь; поэтому мы остались дома.
"Therefore" is a sentence connector, not a subordinating conjunction.
So can introduce a result clause after an expression of degree or consequence as well as coordinate independent clauses.
For example, It was so expensive that we could not afford it and It was expensive, so we chose another one.
It was so expensive that we could not afford it.
Это было так дорого, что мы не могли себе этого позволить.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
It was expensive, so we chose another one.
Это было дорого, поэтому мы выбрали другое.
"So" coordinates a result clause.
She was so tired that she fell asleep immediately.
Она была так устала, что сразу заснула.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
She was tired, so she went to bed early.
Она устала, поэтому рано легла спать.
"So" coordinates a result clause.
The problem was so difficult that nobody could solve it.
Проблема была такой трудной, что никто не мог её решить.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
The problem was difficult, so we asked for help.
Проблема была трудной, поэтому мы попросили помощи.
"So" coordinates a result clause.
He spoke so quickly that I could not understand him.
Он говорил так быстро, что я не мог его понять.
"So ... that" introduces a result clause based on degree.
He spoke quickly, so I asked him to repeat.
Он говорил быстро, поэтому я попросил его повторить.
"So" coordinates a result clause.
So and such can express degree that produces a consequence.
For example, She was so tired that she fell asleep and It was such a long meeting that everyone became exhausted.
She was so tired that she fell asleep.
Она была так устала, что заснула.
"So ... that" expresses degree producing a consequence.
It was such a long meeting that everyone became exhausted.
Это было такое долгое собрание, что все измучились.
"Such ... that" expresses degree producing a consequence.
He was so happy that he started crying.
Он был так счастлив, что начал плакать.
"So ... that" expresses degree producing a consequence.
She is such a talented singer that everyone admires her.
Она такая талантливая певица, что все ею восхищаются.
"Such ... that" expresses degree producing a consequence.
The music was so loud that the neighbours complained.
Музыка была такой громкой, что соседи пожаловались.
"So ... that" expresses degree producing a consequence.
It was such a beautiful day that we went to the beach.
Это был такой прекрасный день, что мы пошли на пляж.
"Such ... that" expresses degree producing a consequence.
He ran so fast that he broke the record.
Он бежал так быстро, что побил рекорд.
"So ... that" expresses degree producing a consequence.
She made such a delicious cake that everyone asked for the recipe.
Она испекла такой вкусный торт, что все попросили рецепт.
"Such ... that" expresses degree producing a consequence.
Reason and result expressions vary in register, with because and so common in everyday language and therefore, consequently, hence, and owing to more common in formal writing.
Choose the expression according to the context rather than assuming that formal expressions are always more correct.
We stayed home because it was raining.
Мы остались дома, потому что шёл дождь.
"Because" is common in everyday language.
The evidence was incomplete; therefore, the researchers repeated the experiment.
Доказательства были неполными; поэтому исследователи повторили эксперимент.
"Therefore" is more common in formal writing.
It was raining, so we stayed home.
Шёл дождь, поэтому мы остались дома.
"So" is common in everyday language.
The sample was too small; consequently, the results were inconclusive.
Выборка была слишком маленькой; следовательно, результаты были неубедительными.
"Consequently" is more common in formal writing.
Because she was tired, she went to bed early.
Поскольку она устала, она рано легла спать.
"Because" is common in everyday language.
The data were incomplete; hence, no firm conclusion could be drawn.
Данные были неполными; следовательно, нельзя было сделать твёрдый вывод.
"Hence" is more common in formal writing.
The flight was delayed due to bad weather.
Рейс был задержан из-за плохой погоды.
"Due to" is common in everyday and formal English.
The event was cancelled owing to heavy rain.
Мероприятие было отменено из-за сильного дождя.
"Owing to" is more common in formal writing.
Use reason and result expressions according to their grammatical pattern and logical direction.
Common mistakes include confusing because with because of, using therefore as a conjunction, confusing reason with result, using due to before a finite clause, and mixing so ... that with so as a coordinating conjunction.
We stayed home because it was raining.
Мы остались дома, потому что шёл дождь.
Correct: "because" introduces a finite clause.
We stayed home because of it was raining.
Мы остались дома из-за того, что шёл дождь.
Incorrect: "because of" cannot be followed by a clause.
The roads were closed; therefore, we stayed home.
Дороги были закрыты; поэтому мы остались дома.
Correct: "therefore" is a sentence connector with a semicolon.
The roads were closed, therefore, we stayed home.
Дороги были закрыты, поэтому мы остались дома.
Incorrect: comma splice with "therefore".
It was raining, so we stayed home.
Шёл дождь, поэтому мы остались дома.
Correct: "so" is a coordinating conjunction with a comma.
It was raining, therefore we stayed home.
Шёл дождь, поэтому мы остались дома.
Incorrect: "therefore" is not a coordinating conjunction.
The flight was delayed due to bad weather.
Рейс был задержан из-за плохой погоды.
Correct: "due to" is followed by a noun phrase.
The flight was delayed due to the weather was bad.
Рейс был задержан из-за погода была плохой.
Incorrect: "due to" cannot be followed by a clause.