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Using apostrophes for possession and contractions.
Apostrophes are mainly used to indicate possession, contractions, and certain omitted letters or numbers.
Examples include John's car, don't, and the '90s.
A singular noun normally forms its possessive with apostrophe + s.
For example, the student's book, Sarah's car, and the company's policy.
A regular plural noun ending in s normally forms its possessive by adding an apostrophe after the plural s.
For example, the students' books and the teachers' room.
An irregular plural noun that does not end in s normally forms its possessive with apostrophe + s.
For example, children's toys, men's clothing, and people's opinions.
Possessives of singular proper names ending in s vary by style, with apostrophe + s common in many modern styles and an apostrophe alone used in some styles.
For example, James's car and James' car can both be encountered depending on style.
Some established style systems treat certain ancient or classical names ending in s differently when forming possessives.
For example, historical or classical names may follow specialized editorial conventions.
When two or more nouns jointly possess the same thing, the possessive marker normally appears only on the final noun.
For example, John and Mary's house means they share ownership of one house.
When two or more nouns possess different things, each relevant noun normally takes its own possessive marker.
For example, John's and Mary's cars means they have separate cars.
Apostrophe + s can mark possession or association with periods of time in expressions involving duration or schedules.
For example, today's meeting, yesterday's news, and a week's holiday.
Apostrophes can occur in expressions where a measurement or quantity functions as a possessive-like modifier.
For example, two weeks' notice, a month's salary, and three days' work.
Apostrophes mark omitted letters in common contractions involving be.
Examples include I'm, you're, he's, she's, it's, we're, and they're.
Apostrophes mark omitted letters in contractions involving have or has.
Examples include I've, you've, they've, he's, and she's, with interpretation determined by context.
Apostrophes mark omitted letters in contractions with will.
Examples include I'll, you'll, he'll, she'll, we'll, and they'll.
Apostrophes mark omitted letters in contractions with would.
Examples include I'd, you'd, he'd, she'd, we'd, and they'd.
Apostrophes mark contractions formed by combining auxiliary verbs with not.
Examples include don't, doesn't, didn't, isn't, aren't, wasn't, weren't, haven't, hasn't, and won't.
Ain't is an informal or dialectal contraction used for several negative forms and is generally avoided in standard formal English.
Its interpretation depends on context and variety, including am not, is not, are not, has not, and have not.
Will not has the irregular contraction won't rather than the expected-looking willn't.
For example, I won't be late.
Let's is normally the contraction of let us when making a suggestion, while let us can also function as a literal request depending on context.
For example, Let's go home. differs from Let us examine the evidence carefully.
It's is a contraction of it is or it has, while its is the possessive form without an apostrophe.
For example, It's raining versus The company changed its policy.
You're is a contraction of you are, while your is a possessive determiner.
For example, You're ready versus your book.
They're is a contraction of they are, their is possessive, and there is an adverb or existential subject-like element.
For example, They're here with their friends over there.
Who's is a contraction of who is or who has, while whose is the possessive interrogative form.
For example, Who's coming? versus Whose bag is this?
There's is the contraction of there is and is normally used with singular noun phrases, although informal speech sometimes extends it to plural contexts.
For example, There's a problem. Standard formal usage prefers There are two problems.
Apostrophes can indicate omitted letters in contractions and some informal or historical spellings.
For example, o'clock from of the clock and rock 'n' roll in informal writing.
The apostrophe in o'clock marks the historical omission in the expression, although modern speakers normally treat o'clock as a fixed word.
For example, five o'clock and at eight o'clock.
An apostrophe can mark omitted digits when a year is abbreviated informally.
For example, the '90s means the 1990s when the context makes the decade clear.
Acronyms and initialisms normally form plurals with a simple s rather than an apostrophe.
For example, CDs, DVDs, URLs, and MPs.
Numerals used as plural nouns normally take a simple s without an apostrophe.
For example, the 1990s, two 7s, and three PCs.
Apostrophes should not normally be used merely to make ordinary nouns plural.
For example, apples, books, and cars, not apple's, book's, and car's.
English can use an of-phrase together with a possessive form when expressing an indefinite member or association.
For example, a friend of John's and a colleague of my sister's.
Possession or association can often be expressed with either an apostrophe possessive or an of-phrase, with differences in meaning, animacy, or naturalness.
For example, John's car and the roof of the house use different possessive constructions.
Independent possessive pronouns such as mine, yours, hers, ours, and theirs do not use apostrophes.
For example, The blue car is mine and That seat is theirs.
Informal writing can use apostrophes to represent contractions and omitted sounds, but formal writing generally prefers standard full forms when appropriate.
For example, gonna and wanna may appear in dialogue, while formal prose normally uses going to and want to.
Use apostrophes for possession, contractions, and genuine omissions, but not for ordinary plurals or possessive pronouns.
Common mistakes include confusing its and it's, your and you're, their and they're, whose and who's, using apostrophes in plural nouns, and confusing shared with separate possession.