Blog about English
Frequent learner mistakes involving punctuation and capitalization.
Practice: build the sentences →Punctuation and capitalization should reflect sentence structure, grammatical relationships, emphasis, and established writing conventions.
The most frequent errors involve missing sentence-ending punctuation, incorrect commas, apostrophe misuse, inconsistent quotation marks, and inappropriate capitalization.
The meeting has ended.
Встреча закончилась.
Missing sentence-ending punctuation is a common mistake.
John and I went home.
Джон и я пошли домой.
Missing capital on "I" is a common mistake.
I called him, but he did not answer.
Я позвонил ему, но он не ответил.
Comma splice is avoided by using a coordinating conjunction.
The students who passed can leave.
Студенты, которые сдали, могут уйти.
Defining relative clause does not take commas.
It's raining.
Идёт дождь.
Confusing "its" and "it's" is a common mistake.
Ordinary common nouns should not normally be capitalized unless they begin a sentence, form part of a proper name, or follow a specific capitalization convention.
For example, English is capitalized as a language name, but grammar is normally lowercase.
The grammar book is on the table.
Учебник грамматики на столе.
Ordinary noun "grammar" is lowercase.
She studies English grammar.
Она изучает английскую грамматику.
"English" is capitalized as a language name; "grammar" is lowercase.
The president gave a speech.
Президент произнёс речь.
Title "president" used descriptively is lowercase.
We visited the city of London.
Мы посетили город Лондон.
Proper name "London" is capitalized.
The company changed its policy.
Компания изменила свою политику.
"Company" and "policy" are common nouns, lowercase.
Names of languages, nationalities, and related national adjectives are capitalized in English.
For example, English, Ukrainian, French, and Japanese.
She speaks English fluently.
Она свободно говорит по-английски.
"English" is capitalized as a language name.
He is Ukrainian.
Он украинец.
"Ukrainian" is capitalized as a nationality.
They study French literature.
Они изучают французскую литературу.
"French" is capitalized.
The Japanese team won.
Японская команда победила.
"Japanese" is capitalized.
We met some Italian tourists.
Мы встретили нескольких итальянских туристов.
"Italian" is capitalized.
Season names are normally lowercase when used as ordinary common nouns.
For example, in spring, during summer, and next winter.
We go skiing in winter.
Мы катаемся на лыжах зимой.
"winter" is lowercase as a season name.
The flowers bloom in spring.
Цветы цветут весной.
"spring" is lowercase.
It is very hot in summer.
Летом очень жарко.
"summer" is lowercase.
The leaves fall in autumn.
Осенью падают листья.
"autumn" is lowercase.
We visited them last winter.
Мы навещали их прошлой зимой.
"winter" is lowercase.
Job titles are generally lowercase when used descriptively but may be capitalized when functioning as formal titles before names or in organizational styles.
For example, the president versus President Lincoln.
She is the marketing director.
Она маркетинговый директор.
Job title "marketing director" used descriptively is lowercase.
Marketing Director Jane Smith spoke.
Маркетинговый директор Джейн Смит выступила.
Job title "Marketing Director" before a name is capitalized.
The president gave a speech.
Президент произнёс речь.
Title "president" used generally is lowercase.
President Lincoln gave a speech.
Президент Линкольн произнёс речь.
Title "President" before a name is capitalized.
He was appointed chief executive officer.
Он был назначен главным исполнительным директором.
Job title used descriptively is lowercase.
The pronoun I is always capitalized.
For example, John and I went home.
I am ready.
Я готов.
Pronoun "I" is always capitalized.
John and I went home.
Джон и я пошли домой.
"I" is capitalized even when joined with another subject.
She asked if I could help.
Она спросила, могу ли я помочь.
"I" is capitalized in the middle of a sentence.
I think it is a good idea.
Я думаю, это хорошая идея.
"I" is always capitalized.
My brother and I play football.
Мой брат и я играем в футбол.
"I" is capitalized.
The first word of a new sentence normally begins with a capital letter.
For example, The meeting ended. Everyone left.
The meeting ended. Everyone left.
Встреча закончилась. Все ушли.
The word "Everyone" after the full stop is capitalized.
She is ready. He is not.
Она готова. Он нет.
The word "He" after the full stop is capitalized.
I like coffee. He prefers tea.
Я люблю кофе. Он предпочитает чай.
The word "He" after the full stop is capitalized.
It is raining. We need an umbrella.
Идёт дождь. Нам нужен зонт.
The word "We" after the full stop is capitalized.
The train left. They missed it.
Поезд ушёл. Они опоздали на него.
The word "They" after the full stop is capitalized.
Complete declarative sentences normally require a full stop or another appropriate final punctuation mark.
For example, The meeting has ended.
The meeting has ended.
Встреча закончилась.
Full stop ends the declarative sentence.
She lives in London.
Она живёт в Лондоне.
Full stop ends the sentence.
We are going home.
Мы идём домой.
Full stop ends the sentence.
He works in an office.
Он работает в офисе.
Full stop ends the sentence.
They arrived yesterday.
Они приехали вчера.
Full stop ends the sentence.
An indirect question embedded in a declarative sentence normally takes the punctuation of the main sentence, not automatically a question mark.
For example, I do not know where she is. but Where is she?
I do not know where she is.
Я не знаю, где она.
Indirect question ends with a full stop.
Where is she?
Где она?
Direct question ends with a question mark.
She asked what time it starts.
Она спросила, во сколько это начинается.
Indirect question ends with a full stop.
What time does it start?
Во сколько это начинается?
Direct question ends with a question mark.
He asked if I could help.
Он спросил, могу ли я помочь.
Indirect question ends with a full stop.
Exclamation marks should generally be reserved for genuine emphasis, strong emotion, surprise, or forceful commands.
Frequent use in formal writing can make prose seem overly emotional or informal.
Stop!
Стой!
Exclamation mark for a forceful command.
What a surprise!
Какой сюрприз!
Exclamation mark for strong emotion.
The results were surprising.
Результаты были неожиданными.
No exclamation mark in formal writing; a full stop is preferred.
I can't believe it!
Я не могу в это поверить!
Exclamation mark for genuine surprise in informal context.
This is the best day ever!!!
Это лучший день в жизни!!!
Multiple exclamation marks are informal and avoided in formal writing.
A comma alone should not normally join two independent clauses.
For example, I called him, he did not answer is a comma splice.
I called him, but he did not answer.
Я позвонил ему, но он не ответил.
Coordinating conjunction "but" after comma is correct.
I called him. He did not answer.
Я позвонил ему. Он не ответил.
Full stop separates two independent clauses.
I called him; he did not answer.
Я позвонил ему; он не ответил.
Semicolon connects independent clauses.
I called him, he did not answer.
Я позвонил ему, он не ответил.
Comma splice: incorrect.
She was tired, so she went to bed.
Она устала, поэтому пошла спать.
Coordinating conjunction "so" prevents comma splice.
A comma should not normally separate a grammatical subject from its finite verb.
For example, The main problem is time, not The main problem, is time.
The main problem is time.
Основная проблема — время.
No comma between subject "problem" and verb "is".
The main problem, is time.
Основная проблема, — время.
Incorrect: comma separates subject and verb.
She bought a new car.
Она купила новую машину.
No comma between verb "bought" and object "car".
She bought, a new car.
Она купила, новую машину.
Incorrect: comma between verb and object.
The students who studied passed.
Студенты, которые учились, сдали.
No comma between subject and verb.
A comma should not normally separate a verb from its essential object or complement.
For example, She bought a new car, not She bought, a new car.
She bought a new car.
Она купила новую машину.
No comma between verb and object.
She bought, a new car.
Она купила, новую машину.
Incorrect: comma separates verb and object.
He said that he was tired.
Он сказал, что устал.
No comma before "that" clause.
He said, that he was tired.
Он сказал, что устал.
Incorrect: comma before "that".
I think you are right.
Я думаю, ты прав.
No comma after "think".
A person or group directly addressed should normally be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
For example, John, could you help me?
John, could you help me?
Джон, не могли бы вы помочь мне?
Comma separates direct address "John".
Thank you, everyone.
Спасибо всем.
Comma before direct address "everyone".
Let's eat, Grandma!
Давай есть, бабушка!
Comma changes meaning: addressing Grandma.
Let's eat Grandma!
Давай съедим бабушку!
Without comma, "Grandma" is the object.
Good morning, class.
Доброе утро, класс.
Comma before direct address "class".
An introductory subordinate clause is commonly followed by a comma.
For example, If you need help, call me.
If you need help, call me.
Если тебе нужна помощь, позвони мне.
Comma after introductory if-clause.
When the meeting ended, everyone left.
Когда встреча закончилась, все ушли.
Comma after introductory clause.
Because it was raining, we stayed home.
Поскольку шёл дождь, мы остались дома.
Comma after introductory clause.
Although he was tired, he kept working.
Хотя он устал, он продолжал работать.
Comma after introductory clause.
While I was cooking, the phone rang.
Пока я готовил, зазвонил телефон.
Comma after introductory clause.
A comma is not normally required when a short subordinate clause follows the main clause.
For example, Call me if you need help is normally written without a comma.
Call me if you need help.
Позвони мне, если тебе нужна помощь.
No comma before the following if-clause.
Call me, if you need help.
Позвони мне, если тебе нужна помощь.
Unnecessary comma before a short subordinate clause.
We will stay home if it rains.
Мы останемся дома, если пойдёт дождь.
No comma before the if-clause.
We will stay home, if it rains.
Мы останемся дома, если пойдёт дождь.
Unnecessary comma.
She left because she was tired.
Она ушла, потому что устала.
No comma before the because-clause.
Defining relative clauses normally do not use commas, while non-defining relative clauses normally do.
For example, The students who passed can leave versus My brother, who lives in London, is visiting.
The students who passed can leave.
Студенты, которые сдали, могут уйти.
Defining relative clause: no commas.
My brother, who lives in London, is visiting.
Мой брат, который живёт в Лондоне, навещает.
Non-defining relative clause: commas.
The car that I bought is new.
Машина, которую я купил, новая.
Defining: no commas.
My car, which I bought yesterday, is new.
Моя машина, которую я купил вчера, новая.
Non-defining: commas.
The book that you lent me was great.
Книга, которую ты мне одолжил, была отличной.
Defining: no commas.
Apostrophes should not normally be used simply to make a noun plural.
For example, books, CDs, URLs, and 1990s, not book's, CD's, URL's, or 1990's.
I bought three apples.
Я купил три яблока.
Plural "apples" has no apostrophe.
I bought three apple's.
Я купил три яблока.
Incorrect: apostrophe used for a plural.
The books are on the shelf.
Книги на полке.
Plural "books" has no apostrophe.
The book's are on the shelf.
Книги на полке.
Incorrect: apostrophe misused for plural.
CDs and DVDs are on sale.
CD и DVD продаются.
Plurals "CDs" and "DVDs" have no apostrophes.
Its is possessive, while it's is a contraction of it is or it has.
For example, The company changed its policy versus It's raining.
It's raining.
Идёт дождь.
"It's" is a contraction of "it is".
The company changed its policy.
Компания изменила свою политику.
"Its" is the possessive form, no apostrophe.
It's been a long day.
Это был долгий день.
"It's" can be "it has".
The dog wagged its tail.
Собака виляла хвостом.
"Its" shows possession.
It's important to be on time.
Важно быть вовремя.
"It's" = "it is".
Your is possessive, while you're is a contraction of you are.
For example, your phone versus you're late.
You're ready.
Ты готов.
"You're" is a contraction of "you are".
Your book is on the table.
Твоя книга на столе.
"Your" is a possessive determiner.
You're going to love it.
Тебе это понравится.
"You're" = "you are".
Is this your bag?
Это твоя сумка?
"Your" shows possession.
You're welcome.
Пожалуйста.
"You're" = "you are".
Their is possessive, they're is a contraction of they are, and there has locative or existential functions.
For example, They're meeting their friends over there.
They're here.
Они здесь.
"They're" is a contraction of "they are".
Their friends are waiting.
Их друзья ждут.
"Their" is possessive.
There is a problem.
Есть проблема.
"There" is existential.
They're going to their house over there.
Они идут в свой дом вон там.
All three forms appear in one sentence.
There are their books.
Вон там их книги.
"There" and "their" are distinct.
Whose expresses possession, while who's is a contraction of who is or who has.
For example, Whose book is this? versus Who's coming?
Who's coming?
Кто идёт?
"Who's" is a contraction of "who is".
Whose bag is this?
Чья это сумка?
"Whose" is the possessive interrogative.
Who's finished the report?
Кто закончил отчёт?
"Who's" can be "who has".
Whose idea was it?
Чья это была идея?
"Whose" shows possession.
Who's at the door?
Кто у двери?
"Who's" = "who is".
Quotation marks should not normally surround material that is being paraphrased rather than quoted exactly.
For example, The author argues that the method is unreliable does not require quotation marks around the paraphrase.
The author argues that the method is unreliable.
Автор утверждает, что метод ненадёжен.
Paraphrase does not require quotation marks.
The author says "the method is unreliable".
Автор говорит: «метод ненадёжен».
Quotation marks only around exact words.
She said she would be there at noon.
Она сказала, что будет там в полдень.
Indirect speech does not use quotation marks.
He wrote that the results were significant.
Он написал, что результаты значимы.
Paraphrased content is not quoted.
The manual says to press the green button.
В руководстве сказано нажать зелёную кнопку.
Paraphrase of instructions.
A document should generally follow one consistent quotation-mark convention unless a deliberate nested quotation requires a different level.
For example, do not switch randomly between single and double quotation marks.
She said, "I am ready."
Она сказала: «Я готова».
American style uses double quotation marks first.
She said, 'I am ready.'
Она сказала: «Я готова».
British style uses single quotation marks first.
He said, "I heard her say 'Wait.'"
Он сказал: «Я слышал, как она сказала: „Подожди“».
American style: double outer, single inner.
He said, 'I heard her say "Wait."'
Он сказал: «Я слышал, как она сказала: „Подожди“».
British style: single outer, double inner.
Mixing "double" and 'single' randomly is inconsistent.
Смешивание «двойных» и «одинарных» кавычек случайным образом непоследовательно.
Avoid inconsistent quotation styles.
Question and exclamation marks should be placed according to whether they belong to the quoted material or the surrounding sentence.
For example, She asked, "Why are you here?" versus Did she really say "Stop"?
She asked, "Why are you here?"
Она спросила: «Почему ты здесь?»
Question mark inside because the quotation is a question.
Did she really say "Stop"?
Она действительно сказала «Стой»?
Question mark outside because the surrounding sentence is a question.
He shouted, "Stop!"
Он крикнул: «Стой!»
Exclamation mark inside because the quotation is exclamatory.
Did he really say "Stop"?
Он действительно сказал «Стой»?
Question mark outside; no exclamation.
She asked, "Can you help me?"
Она спросила: «Ты можешь мне помочь?»
Question mark inside because it is part of the quotation.
Compound modifiers before nouns should be hyphenated when needed to show that the words function together as one modifier.
For example, a well-known writer and a five-year-old child.
a well-known writer
известный писатель
Hyphen joins "well-known" before a noun.
a five-year-old child
пятилетний ребёнок
Hyphen joins the age compound before a noun.
a high-speed train
высокоскоростной поезд
Hyphen joins "high-speed".
a user-friendly interface
удобный интерфейс
Hyphen joins "user-friendly".
a part-time job
работа с частичной занятостью
Hyphen joins "part-time".
Measurement units inside number-unit compound modifiers are normally singular.
For example, a five-year-old child and a ten-kilometre race, not five-years-old or ten-kilometres.
a five-year-old child
пятилетний ребёнок
Singular "year" in compound modifier.
a ten-kilometre race
десятикилометровая гонка
Singular "kilometre" in compound modifier.
a two-metre wall
двухметровая стена
Singular "metre" in compound modifier.
a three-hour meeting
трёхчасовая встреча
Singular "hour" in compound modifier.
a twenty-kilogram suitcase
двадцатикилограммовый чемодан
Singular "kilogram" in compound modifier.
Hyphens join words or parts of compounds, while en dashes commonly express ranges or relationships.
For example, part-time versus 2010–2020.
part-time
с частичной занятостью
Hyphen joins the compound.
2010–2020
2010–2020
En dash expresses a range.
a well-known author
известный автор
Hyphen joins the compound adjective.
the London–Paris train
поезд Лондон–Париж
En dash connects endpoints.
pages 10–20
страницы 10–20
En dash for a page range.
A hyphen is part of a word or compound, while an em dash marks a strong break, interruption, or parenthetical emphasis.
For example, well-known versus The answer—despite its simplicity—was wrong.
well-known
известный
Hyphen joins the compound.
The answer—despite its simplicity—was wrong.
Ответ — несмотря на простоту — был неверным.
Em dash marks a parenthetical emphasis.
a five-year-old child
пятилетний ребёнок
Hyphen joins the age compound.
I was going to call—but then I forgot.
Я собирался позвонить — но потом забыл.
Em dash marks an interruption.
a high-speed train
высокоскоростной поезд
Hyphen joins the compound adjective.
A colon should normally follow a complete clause when introducing a list, explanation, example, or elaboration.
For example, We need three things: time, money, and staff. Avoid The things we need are: time, money, and staff.
We need three things: time, money, and staff.
Нам нужны три вещи: время, деньги и персонал.
Colon follows a complete clause.
The things we need are: time, money, and staff.
Вещи, которые нам нужны: время, деньги и персонал.
Incorrect: colon after "are" is inappropriate.
There was one problem: nobody had the key.
Была одна проблема: ни у кого не было ключа.
Colon introduces an explanation.
She had one goal: to finish the project.
У неё была одна цель: закончить проект.
Colon introduces elaboration.
The options are red, green, and blue.
Варианты: красный, зелёный и синий.
No colon needed after "are".
A semicolon should normally connect independent clauses or separate complex list items.
For example, Because it rained; we stayed home is incorrect.
Because it rained; we stayed home.
Поскольку шёл дождь; мы остались дома.
Incorrect: semicolon before independent clause.
Because it rained, we stayed home.
Поскольку шёл дождь, мы остались дома.
Correct: comma after dependent clause.
I wanted to leave; it was getting late.
Я хотел уйти; становилось поздно.
Correct: semicolon joins independent clauses.
The delegates came from Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Madrid, Spain.
Делегаты прибыли из Парижа, Франция; Рима, Италия; и Мадрида, Испания.
Semicolons separate complex list items.
The main problem; is lack of time.
Основная проблема; — нехватка времени.
Incorrect: semicolon between subject and verb.
Ellipses should have a clear function and should not replace ordinary punctuation throughout formal prose.
Excessive use can make writing appear hesitant, fragmented, or informal.
I was going to say ... but I changed my mind.
Я собирался сказать ... но передумал.
Ellipsis indicates a pause or trailing off.
Well ... I am not sure.
Ну ... я не уверен.
Ellipsis shows hesitation.
The report states, "The results ... were unexpected."
В отчёте говорится: «Результаты ... были неожиданными».
Ellipsis marks omitted material in a quotation.
If only I had known ...
Если бы я только знал ...
Ellipsis indicates an unfinished thought.
I thought ... well, never mind.
Я думал ... ну, неважно.
Ellipsis used appropriately for a trailing-off thought.
Repeated question marks and exclamation marks are generally informal and should be avoided in formal writing.
For example, What??? and Amazing!!! may occur in messaging but are normally inappropriate in formal prose.
What???
Что???
Multiple question marks are informal.
Amazing!!!
Потрясающе!!!
Multiple exclamation marks are informal.
What?
Что?
Single question mark is standard.
Amazing!
Потрясающе!
Single exclamation mark is standard.
Really?!
Правда?!
Combined punctuation is informal.
Titles and headings should follow a consistent capitalization style such as sentence case or title case.
For example, How to use commas versus How to Use Commas.
How to use commas
Как использовать запятые
Sentence case: only first word and proper nouns capitalized.
How to Use Commas
Как использовать запятые
Title case: major words capitalized.
The History of English Grammar
История английской грамматики
Title case with major words capitalized.
The history of English grammar
История английской грамматики
Sentence case.
Writing Effective Emails
Написание эффективных писем
Title case.
Correct punctuation and capitalization require control of sentence boundaries, commas, apostrophes, quotation marks, hyphens, dashes, colons, semicolons, ellipses, and proper-name capitalization.
Before adding punctuation or capitals, identify the grammatical structure and determine whether the relevant element is a proper name, quotation, compound, clause boundary, list, or supplementary expression.
The meeting has ended. Everyone left.
Встреча закончилась. Все ушли.
Sentence boundary with full stop and capital.
John, could you help me?
Джон, не могли бы вы помочь мне?
Comma in direct address.
It's raining, but the company changed its policy.
Идёт дождь, но компания изменила свою политику.
Contraction and possessive distinguished.
She asked, "Why are you here?"
Она спросила: «Почему ты здесь?»
Quotation marks with question mark inside.
The well-known author—despite the rain—arrived on time.
Известный автор — несмотря на дождь — приехал вовремя.
Hyphen in compound modifier, em dashes for parenthetical emphasis.