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Frequent learner mistakes involving relative clauses.
Practice: build the sentences →Use a defining relative clause when the information identifies the noun and a non-defining clause when the information is additional.
Compare The students who passed the exam received certificates with The students, who passed the exam, received certificates.
The students who passed the exam received certificates.
Студенты, которые сдали экзамен, получили сертификаты.
The clause "who passed the exam" is defining; it identifies which students.
The students, who passed the exam, received certificates.
Студенты, которые сдали экзамен, получили сертификаты.
The clause "who passed the exam" is non-defining; it adds extra information about all students.
The book that I bought yesterday is on the table.
Книга, которую я купил вчера, на столе.
The clause "that I bought yesterday" is defining; it identifies the book.
My car, which I bought last year, is reliable.
Моя машина, которую я купил в прошлом году, надёжная.
The clause "which I bought last year" is non-defining; it adds extra information about my car.
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
Женщина, которая живёт по соседству, врач.
The clause "who lives next door" is defining; it identifies which woman.
Defining relative clauses are normally not separated by commas.
For example, The people who work here are friendly. Adding commas can change the intended meaning.
The people who work here are friendly.
Люди, которые здесь работают, дружелюбные.
No commas are used around the defining clause "who work here".
The car which I bought last year is reliable.
Машина, которую я купил в прошлом году, надёжная.
No commas separate the defining clause "which I bought last year".
The book that you recommended was excellent.
Книга, которую ты рекомендовал, была отличной.
No commas are used with the defining clause "that you recommended".
The students who passed the test received certificates.
Студенты, которые сдали тест, получили сертификаты.
The clause "who passed the test" is essential, so no commas are used.
The woman who called yesterday left a message.
Женщина, которая звонила вчера, оставила сообщение.
No commas are used around the defining clause "who called yesterday".
Non-defining relative clauses are normally separated from the main clause by commas.
For example, My brother, who lives in Canada, is visiting us.
My brother, who lives in Canada, is visiting us.
Мой брат, который живёт в Канаде, навещает нас.
Commas separate the non-defining clause "who lives in Canada".
My sister, who lives in Paris, is a doctor.
Моя сестра, которая живёт в Париже, врач.
The non-defining clause "who lives in Paris" is set off by commas.
The car, which is red, belongs to my father.
Машина, которая красная, принадлежит моему отцу.
The non-defining clause "which is red" is enclosed in commas.
John, who is my best friend, is coming to dinner.
Джон, который мой лучший друг, приходит на ужин.
The non-defining clause "who is my best friend" is set off by commas.
The book, which I read last week, was fascinating.
Книга, которую я прочитал на прошлой неделе, была увлекательной.
Commas surround the non-defining clause "which I read last week".
Use who primarily for people and which primarily for things and animals.
For example, The woman who called me and The car which I bought.
The woman who called me left a message.
Женщина, которая мне звонила, оставила сообщение.
Who is used for a person in "who called me".
The car which I bought is reliable.
Машина, которую я купил, надёжная.
Which is used for a thing in "which I bought".
The man who lives next door is a doctor.
Мужчина, который живёт по соседству, врач.
Who is used for a person in "who lives next door".
The book which is on the table is mine.
Книга, которая на столе, моя.
Which is used for a thing in "which is on the table".
The dog which lives next door is friendly.
Собака, которая живёт по соседству, дружелюбная.
Which can be used for an animal in "which lives next door".
Who is common for both subject and object reference in modern English, while whom is mainly used as an object form in formal English.
For example, The person who I met and the formal The person whom I met.
The person who I met was helpful.
Человек, которого я встретил, был полезен.
Who is common in modern English in "who I met".
The person whom I met was helpful.
Человек, которого я встретил, был полезен.
Whom is more formal in "whom I met".
The woman who you called is my aunt.
Женщина, которой ты звонил, моя тётя.
Who is common in "who you called".
The woman whom you called is my aunt.
Женщина, которой ты звонил, моя тётя.
Whom is formal in "whom you called".
The man who I spoke to was helpful.
Мужчина, с которым я говорил, был полезен.
Who is common in "who I spoke to".
That can refer to people in defining relative clauses, but who is generally the more natural choice for people.
For example, The person who called me is preferred by many speakers, while The person that called me is also possible in defining contexts.
The person who called me left a message.
Человек, который мне звонил, оставил сообщение.
Who is generally the more natural choice in "who called me".
The person that called me left a message.
Человек, который мне звонил, оставил сообщение.
That is also possible in defining contexts in "that called me".
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
Женщина, которая живёт по соседству, врач.
Who is preferred in "who lives next door".
The woman that lives next door is a doctor.
Женщина, которая живёт по соседству, врач.
That is possible in defining clauses in "that lives next door".
The man who I met was friendly.
Мужчина, которого я встретил, был дружелюбным.
Who is common in "who I met".
That and which can both introduce many defining relative clauses referring to things, but that cannot normally introduce a non-defining relative clause.
For example, The book that I bought and The book which I bought are standard defining constructions.
The book that I bought is on the table.
Книга, которую я купил, на столе.
That is standard in defining clauses in "that I bought".
The book which I bought is on the table.
Книга, которую я купил, на столе.
Which is also standard in defining clauses in "which I bought".
The car that she drives is very old.
Машина, которую она водит, очень старая.
That is common in defining clauses in "that she drives".
The car which she drives is very old.
Машина, которую она водит, очень старая.
Which is also possible in defining clauses in "which she drives".
The film that we watched was excellent.
Фильм, который мы смотрели, был отличным.
That is common in defining clauses in "that we watched".
Do not normally use that to introduce a non-defining relative clause.
Use who, whom, whose, or which instead. For example, My car, which I bought last year, is reliable.
My car, which I bought last year, is reliable.
Моя машина, которую я купил в прошлом году, надёжная.
Use which, not that, in the non-defining clause "which I bought last year".
My sister, who lives in Paris, is a doctor.
Моя сестра, которая живёт в Париже, врач.
Use who, not that, in the non-defining clause "who lives in Paris".
The house, which we bought last year, needs repairs.
Дом, который мы купили в прошлом году, нуждается в ремонте.
The non-defining clause "which we bought last year" uses which, not that.
John, who is my best friend, is coming to dinner.
Джон, который мой лучший друг, приходит на ужин.
Use who, not that, in the non-defining clause "who is my best friend".
The book, which I read last week, was fascinating.
Книга, которую я прочитал на прошлой неделе, была увлекательной.
The non-defining clause "which I read last week" requires which, not that.
Determine whether the relative pronoun is the subject or object of the relative clause before deciding whether it can be omitted.
Compare The woman who lives here with The woman who I met yesterday.
The woman who lives here is a doctor.
Женщина, которая здесь живёт, врач.
In "who lives here", who is the subject of lives.
The woman who I met yesterday is a doctor.
Женщина, которую я встретил вчера, врач.
In "who I met yesterday", who is the object of met.
The car which caused the accident was damaged.
Машина, которая вызвала аварию, была повреждена.
In "which caused the accident", which is the subject of caused.
The car which I bought was damaged.
Машина, которую я купил, была повреждена.
In "which I bought", which is the object of bought.
The person that called you left a message.
Человек, который тебе звонил, оставил сообщение.
In "that called you", that is the subject of called.
A subject relative pronoun normally cannot be omitted.
For example, The woman who lives here cannot become The woman lives here while retaining the same relative-clause structure.
The woman who lives here is a doctor.
Женщина, которая здесь живёт, врач.
The subject pronoun "who" cannot be omitted in "who lives here".
The car that caused the accident was damaged.
Машина, которая вызвала аварию, была повреждена.
The subject pronoun "that" cannot be omitted in "that caused the accident".
The book which is on the table is mine.
Книга, которая на столе, моя.
The subject pronoun "which" cannot be omitted in "which is on the table".
The people who work here are friendly.
Люди, которые здесь работают, дружелюбные.
The subject pronoun "who" cannot be omitted in "who work here".
The dog that lives next door is friendly.
Собака, которая живёт по соседству, дружелюбная.
The subject pronoun "that" cannot be omitted in "that lives next door".
Object relative pronouns can often be omitted in defining clauses, especially in informal and neutral English.
For example, The book that I bought and The book I bought are both standard.
The book that I bought is on the table.
Книга, которую я купил, на столе.
The object pronoun "that" can be omitted in "that I bought".
The book I bought is on the table.
Книга, которую я купил, на столе.
The object pronoun is omitted in "I bought".
The film that we watched was excellent.
Фильм, который мы смотрели, был отличным.
The object pronoun "that" can be omitted in "that we watched".
The film we watched was excellent.
Фильм, который мы смотрели, был отличным.
The object pronoun is omitted in "we watched".
The car that she drives is very old.
Машина, которую она водит, очень старая.
The object pronoun "that" can be omitted in "that she drives".
Relative pronouns are not normally omitted in non-defining relative clauses.
For example, My sister, who I visited yesterday, is a doctor. The form My sister, I visited yesterday, is not standard.
My sister, who I visited yesterday, is a doctor.
Моя сестра, которую я навестил вчера, врач.
The pronoun "who" cannot be omitted in the non-defining clause "who I visited yesterday".
My car, which I bought last year, is reliable.
Моя машина, которую я купил в прошлом году, надёжная.
The pronoun "which" cannot be omitted in the non-defining clause "which I bought last year".
My brother, whom I met yesterday, is a teacher.
Мой брат, которого я встретил вчера, учитель.
The pronoun "whom" cannot be omitted in the non-defining clause "whom I met yesterday".
The book, which I read last week, was fascinating.
Книга, которую я прочитал на прошлой неделе, была увлекательной.
The pronoun "which" cannot be omitted in the non-defining clause "which I read last week".
John, who I met at the conference, is my colleague.
Джон, которого я встретил на конференции, мой коллега.
The pronoun "who" cannot be omitted in the non-defining clause "who I met at the conference".
Whose expresses possession and should be followed by a noun or noun phrase.
For example, The man whose car was stolen called the police.
The man whose car was stolen called the police.
Мужчина, чью машину украли, позвонил в полицию.
Whose is correctly followed by the noun "car" in "whose car was stolen".
The woman whose brother lives here is my aunt.
Женщина, чей брат живёт здесь, моя тётя.
Whose is correctly followed by the noun "brother" in "whose brother lives here".
The girl whose bag is on the chair is my sister.
Девочка, чья сумка на стуле, моя сестра.
Whose is correctly followed by the noun "bag" in "whose bag is on the chair".
The company whose offices are in London is hiring.
Компания, чьи офисы в Лондоне, нанимает сотрудников.
Whose is correctly followed by the noun "offices" in "whose offices are in London".
The dog whose tail is short is mine.
Собака, чей хвост короткий, моя.
Whose is correctly followed by the noun "tail" in "whose tail is short".
Do not use who when the relative clause requires a possessive determiner.
Use The woman whose brother lives here, not The woman who brother lives here.
The woman whose brother lives here is my aunt.
Женщина, чей брат живёт здесь, моя тётя.
Use whose, not who, in "whose brother lives here".
The man whose car was stolen called the police.
Мужчина, чью машину украли, позвонил в полицию.
Use whose, not who, in "whose car was stolen".
The girl whose bag is on the chair is my sister.
Девочка, чья сумка на стуле, моя сестра.
Use whose, not who, in "whose bag is on the chair".
The company whose offices are in London is hiring.
Компания, чьи офисы в Лондоне, нанимает сотрудников.
Use whose, not who, in "whose offices are in London".
The dog whose tail is short is mine.
Собака, чей хвост короткий, моя.
Use whose, not who, in "whose tail is short".
A preposition directly before a relative pronoun requires an appropriate wh-form rather than that or ordinary who in formal constructions.
For example, the person to whom I spoke and the system on which the software runs.
The person to whom I spoke was helpful.
Человек, с которым я говорил, был полезен.
Use "whom" after the preposition "to" in "to whom I spoke".
The system on which the software runs is secure.
Система, на которой работает программное обеспечение, безопасна.
Use "which" after the preposition "on" in "on which the software runs".
The colleague with whom I worked has moved abroad.
Коллега, с которым я работал, переехал за границу.
Use "whom" after the preposition "with" in "with whom I worked".
The book in which I found the information is rare.
Книга, в которой я нашёл информацию, редкая.
Use "which" after the preposition "in" in "in which I found the information".
The candidate for whom I voted won the election.
Кандидат, за которого я голосовал, победил на выборах.
Use "whom" after the preposition "for" in "for whom I voted".
The preposition in a relative clause must be the one required by the underlying verb, adjective, noun, or expression.
For example, the person I spoke to, not the person I spoke at, unless the meaning specifically requires at.
The person I spoke to was helpful.
Человек, с которым я говорил, был полезен.
The verb "speak" requires the preposition "to" in "I spoke to".
The company I work for is expanding.
Компания, на которую я работаю, расширяется.
The verb "work" requires the preposition "for" in "I work for".
The subject we were talking about was difficult.
Тема, о которой мы говорили, была сложной.
The verb "talk" requires the preposition "about" in "we were talking about".
The book I was looking for is on the shelf.
Книга, которую я искал, на полке.
The verb "look" requires the preposition "for" in "I was looking for".
The friend I went out with is a teacher.
Друг, с которым я гулял, учитель.
The verb "go out" requires the preposition "with" in "I went out with".
Do not add a preposition merely because a relative pronoun appears in the clause.
For example, The person whom I met is correct; The person with whom I met is incorrect unless with belongs to the intended meaning.
The person whom I met was helpful.
Человек, которого я встретил, был полезен.
No preposition is needed because the verb "met" does not require one in "whom I met".
The book which I read was interesting.
Книга, которую я прочитал, была интересной.
No preposition is needed because the verb "read" does not require one in "which I read".
The film that we watched was excellent.
Фильм, который мы смотрели, был отличным.
No preposition is needed because the verb "watched" does not require one in "that we watched".
The person to whom I spoke was helpful.
Человек, с которым я говорил, был полезен.
The preposition "to" is required by the verb "speak" in "to whom I spoke".
The company for which she works is expanding.
Компания, на которую она работает, расширяется.
The preposition "for" is required by the verb "work" in "for which she works".
Use where for place, when for time, and why for reason when the grammatical relationship supports a relative-adverb construction.
For example, The place where I live, the day when we met, and the reason why she left.
The place where I live is quiet.
Место, где я живу, тихое.
Use "where" for a place in "where I live".
The day when we met was sunny.
День, когда мы встретились, был солнечным.
Use "when" for a time in "when we met".
The reason why she left is unclear.
Причина, по которой она ушла, неясна.
Use "why" for a reason in "why she left".
The house where I grew up is old.
Дом, где я вырос, старый.
Use "where" for a place in "where I grew up".
The moment when the lights went out was scary.
Момент, когда погас свет, был страшным.
Use "when" for a time in "when the lights went out".
Where expresses a place relationship, while which refers directly to the antecedent noun.
Compare The house where I live with The house which I bought.
The house where I live is small.
Дом, где я живу, маленький.
Where expresses a place relationship in "where I live".
The house which I bought is small.
Дом, который я купил, маленький.
Which refers directly to the house in "which I bought".
The office where she works is modern.
Офис, где она работает, современный.
Where expresses a place relationship in "where she works".
The office which she visited is modern.
Офис, который она посетила, современный.
Which refers directly to the office in "which she visited".
The city where he was born is large.
Город, где он родился, большой.
Where expresses a place relationship in "where he was born".
When expresses a time relationship, while which directly refers to the antecedent noun.
Compare The day when we met with The day which I will never forget.
The day when we met was sunny.
День, когда мы встретились, был солнечным.
When expresses a time relationship in "when we met".
The day which I will never forget was sunny.
День, который я никогда не забуду, был солнечным.
Which refers directly to the day in "which I will never forget".
The year when she graduated was 2018.
Год, когда она окончила университет, был 2018.
When expresses a time relationship in "when she graduated".
The year which she spent abroad was 2018.
Год, который она провела за границей, был 2018.
Which refers directly to the year in "which she spent abroad".
The moment when he arrived was exciting.
Момент, когда он пришёл, был волнительным.
When expresses a time relationship in "when he arrived".
Why normally refers to a reason and is especially common after the noun reason.
For example, The reason why she left is unclear. The form is redundant in a logical sense but completely standard in English.
The reason why she left is unclear.
Причина, по которой она ушла, неясна.
Why refers to a reason in "why she left".
I do not know the reason why he resigned.
Я не знаю причину, по которой он уволился.
Why follows the noun "reason" in "why he resigned".
Tell me the reason why you are late.
Скажи мне причину, по которой ты опоздал.
Why follows "reason" in "why you are late".
The reason why he failed is obvious.
Причина, по которой он провалился, очевидна.
Why follows "reason" in "why he failed".
She explained the reason why she was upset.
Она объяснила причину, по которой расстроилась.
Why follows "reason" in "why she was upset".
Removing an object relative pronoun is different from reducing a relative clause by using a participle or infinitive.
The book I bought uses omission, while the book bought yesterday is a reduced relative clause.
The book I bought is on the table.
Книга, которую я купил, на столе.
This uses omission of the object relative pronoun in "I bought".
The book bought yesterday is on the table.
Книга, купленная вчера, на столе.
This is a reduced relative clause using the past participle "bought yesterday".
The film we watched was excellent.
Фильм, который мы смотрели, был отличным.
This uses omission of the object relative pronoun in "we watched".
The film watched by millions was excellent.
Фильм, просмотренный миллионами, был отличным.
This is a reduced relative clause using the past participle "watched by millions".
The man I met was friendly.
Мужчина, которого я встретил, был дружелюбным.
This uses omission of the object relative pronoun in "I met".
A reduced relative clause must preserve the correct active or passive relationship between the noun and the participle.
For example, the people working here corresponds to people who work here, while the documents signed yesterday corresponds to documents that were signed yesterday.
The people working here are friendly.
Люди, работающие здесь, дружелюбные.
The present participle "working here" correctly reduces "who work here".
The documents signed yesterday are available.
Документы, подписанные вчера, доступны.
The past participle "signed yesterday" correctly reduces "that were signed yesterday".
The car damaged in the accident was repaired.
Машина, повреждённая в аварии, была отремонтирована.
The past participle "damaged in the accident" correctly reduces "that was damaged in the accident".
The woman standing by the door is my aunt.
Женщина, стоящая у двери, моя тётя.
The present participle "standing by the door" correctly reduces "who is standing by the door".
The products made in Italy are popular.
Продукты, сделанные в Италии, популярны.
The past participle "made in Italy" correctly reduces "that are made in Italy".
A participial reduction should clearly modify the intended noun and should not create a misleading or impossible subject relationship.
The reduced participle must logically describe the noun it follows.
The man walking the dog is my neighbor.
Мужчина, гуляющий с собакой, мой сосед.
The reduced clause "walking the dog" clearly modifies "the man".
The woman standing by the door is my aunt.
Женщина, стоящая у двери, моя тётя.
The reduced clause "standing by the door" clearly modifies "the woman".
The car parked outside is mine.
Машина, припаркованная снаружи, моя.
The reduced clause "parked outside" clearly modifies "the car".
The children playing in the park are happy.
Дети, играющие в парке, счастливы.
The reduced clause "playing in the park" clearly modifies "the children".
The documents signed yesterday are on the table.
Документы, подписанные вчера, на столе.
The reduced clause "signed yesterday" clearly modifies "the documents".
What is a fused relative word and normally does not follow an explicit antecedent noun, while that can introduce an ordinary defining relative clause.
Compare I understand what you mean with I understand the explanation that you gave me.
I understand what you mean.
Я понимаю, что ты имеешь в виду.
What is a fused relative word in "what you mean".
I understand the explanation that you gave me.
Я понимаю объяснение, которое ты мне дал.
That introduces an ordinary defining relative clause in "that you gave me".
Take what you need.
Возьми то, что тебе нужно.
What is a fused relative in "what you need".
Take the things that you need.
Возьми те вещи, которые тебе нужны.
That introduces a defining relative clause in "that you need" after the antecedent "things".
What she said surprised me.
То, что она сказала, удивило меня.
What is a fused relative in "what she said".
Whoever refers to any person who satisfies a condition, while who normally refers to a specific antecedent noun.
Compare Whoever arrives first can start with The person who arrives first can start.
Whoever arrives first can start.
Кто придёт первым, может начать.
Whoever refers to any person who satisfies the condition in "whoever arrives first".
The person who arrives first can start.
Человек, который придёт первым, может начать.
Who refers to a specific antecedent "the person" in "who arrives first".
Whoever wants to join should sign up.
Кто хочет присоединиться, должен записаться.
Whoever refers to any person in "whoever wants to join".
The student who wants to join should sign up.
Студент, который хочет присоединиться, должен записаться.
Who refers to a specific antecedent "the student" in "who wants to join".
Whoever told you that was mistaken.
Тот, кто сказал тебе это, ошибался.
Whoever refers to any person in "whoever told you that".
Whatever normally expresses unrestricted choice, while whichever usually refers to one item from a known or limited set.
Compare Choose whatever you want with Choose whichever of these options you prefer.
Choose whatever you want.
Выбери всё, что хочешь.
Whatever expresses unrestricted choice in "whatever you want".
Choose whichever of these options you prefer.
Выбери тот из этих вариантов, который ты предпочитаешь.
Whichever refers to a limited set in "whichever of these options you prefer".
Take whatever you need.
Возьми всё, что тебе нужно.
Whatever expresses unrestricted choice in "whatever you need".
Take whichever bus comes first.
Садись на тот автобус, который придёт первым.
Whichever refers to a limited set of buses in "whichever bus comes first".
Do whatever makes you happy.
Делай то, что делает тебя счастливым.
Whatever expresses unrestricted choice in "whatever makes you happy".
The verb in a relative clause must agree with the subject of that clause.
For example, The people who live here are friendly, but The person who lives here is friendly.
The people who live here are friendly.
Люди, которые здесь живут, дружелюбные.
The verb "live" agrees with "who", which refers to people.
The person who lives here is friendly.
Человек, который здесь живёт, дружелюбный.
The verb "lives" agrees with "who", which refers to one person.
The students who passed the test received certificates.
Студенты, которые сдали тест, получили сертификаты.
The verb "passed" agrees with "who", which refers to students.
The student who passed the test received a certificate.
Студент, который сдал тест, получил сертификат.
The verb "passed" agrees with "who", which refers to one student.
The cars which are parked outside are mine.
Машины, которые припаркованы снаружи, мои.
The verb "are" agrees with "which", which refers to cars.
Relative clauses should be positioned and structured so that the intended antecedent is clear.
Poor positioning or long chains of relative clauses can make it unclear which noun a relative clause modifies.
The man who I met yesterday was friendly.
Мужчина, которого я встретил вчера, был дружелюбным.
The relative clause "who I met yesterday" clearly modifies "the man".
The book on the table that I bought is mine.
Книга на столе, которую я купил, моя.
The relative clause "that I bought" clearly modifies "the book".
The woman who lives next door and who works at the hospital is my neighbour.
Женщина, которая живёт по соседству и которая работает в больнице, моя соседка.
Two relative clauses clearly modify "the woman" in "who lives next door" and "who works at the hospital".
The car which I bought which was damaged is in the garage.
Машина, которую я купил и которая была повреждена, в гараже.
The relative clauses "which I bought" and "which was damaged" clearly modify "the car".
The student who sits by the window and who studies hard is absent.
Студент, который сидит у окна и который усердно учится, отсутствует.
The relative clauses "who sits by the window" and "who studies hard" clearly modify "the student".
Accurate relative-clause usage requires control of clause type, pronoun choice, grammatical role, omission, prepositions, adverbs, reduction, punctuation, and special constructions.
Before forming a relative clause, identify the antecedent, determine the grammatical role of the relative element, and decide whether the information is defining or additional.
The book that I bought is on the table.
Книга, которую я купил, на столе.
Correct: "that" introduces a defining relative clause in "that I bought".
My car, which I bought last year, is reliable.
Моя машина, которую я купил в прошлом году, надёжная.
Correct: "which" and commas are used in the non-defining clause "which I bought last year".
The person to whom I spoke was helpful.
Человек, с которым я говорил, был полезен.
Correct: "whom" follows the preposition "to" in "to whom I spoke".
The woman who lives here is a doctor.
Женщина, которая здесь живёт, врач.
Correct: the subject pronoun "who" cannot be omitted in "who lives here".
The book I bought is on the table.
Книга, которую я купил, на столе.
Correct: the object pronoun is omitted in the defining clause "I bought".