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Joining clauses using coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.
Coordination joins grammatical elements of equal status, while subordination makes one clause dependent on another.
Coordination commonly joins independent clauses, while subordination expresses relationships such as time, cause, condition, contrast, purpose, and concession.
Coordinating conjunctions join elements of equal grammatical status.
The main coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, so, yet, for, and nor.
And coordinates words, phrases, or clauses to add information or connect events.
For example, She opened the door and walked inside, and She opened the door, and he followed her.
But coordinates elements or clauses that contrast with each other.
For example, I wanted to go, but I was too tired.
Or coordinates alternatives or choices.
For example, We can stay here or we can go home.
So can coordinate clauses to express a result or consequence.
For example, It was raining, so we stayed home.
Yet can coordinate contrasting ideas, often emphasizing that the second idea is surprising in light of the first.
For example, He was tired, yet he continued working.
Nor can coordinate a negative alternative or continue a negative construction.
For example, She did not call, nor did she send a message.
For can coordinate clauses to give a reason, although this use is relatively formal and less common in everyday speech.
For example, We left early, for the weather was getting worse.
Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction are commonly separated by a comma.
For example, I was tired, so I went home.
Independent clauses can sometimes be joined by a semicolon when the relationship is clear.
For example, I was tired; I went home.
Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses and show their relationship to the main clause.
Common subordinating conjunctions include because, although, if, when, while, since, unless, and before.
Because introduces a clause giving the reason for the situation in the main clause.
For example, We stayed home because it was raining.
Although and though introduce a contrast between a dependent clause and the main clause.
For example, Although it was raining, we went for a walk.
Even though introduces a strong or emphatic contrast between two facts or situations.
For example, Even though he was tired, he continued working.
If introduces a condition on which the main clause depends.
For example, If it rains, we will stay home.
Unless introduces a negative condition and is often equivalent in meaning to if ... not.
For example, Unless you hurry, you will be late is similar to If you do not hurry, you will be late.
When and while introduce clauses describing the time relationship between two events or situations.
For example, Call me when you arrive and She listened while I was speaking.
Before and after introduce clauses that establish the order of two events.
For example, Call me before you leave and We went home after the meeting ended.
Since can introduce either a time relationship or a reason, depending on context.
For example, I have lived here since I graduated expresses time, while Since you are here, we can start expresses cause.
As can introduce clauses expressing time, reason, or manner depending on context.
For example, As I was leaving, he called; As it was late, we went home; and Do it as I showed you.
So that can introduce a clause expressing purpose or, in some contexts, a result.
For example, I left early so that I could catch the train.
In order that introduces a formal purpose clause.
For example, The changes were made in order that the system could operate more efficiently.
Whereas and while can introduce clauses that contrast two people, things, or situations.
For example, John prefers tea, whereas Mary prefers coffee.
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to connect elements of equal grammatical status.
Common pairs include both ... and, either ... or, neither ... nor, and not only ... but also.
Both ... and connects two coordinated elements and normally expresses two included alternatives.
For example, Both John and Mary attended the meeting.
Either ... or presents two alternatives.
For example, You can either stay here or come with us.
Neither ... nor presents two negative alternatives.
For example, Neither John nor Mary was available.
Not only ... but also connects two elements while adding emphasis to the second element.
For example, She is not only intelligent but also extremely hardworking.
Coordinated elements should normally have matching grammatical forms or structures.
For example, She likes reading, writing, and travelling is parallel, while She likes reading, to write, and travelling is poorly balanced.
A subordinate clause can normally occur before or after the main clause, with punctuation varying according to its position and function.
For example, Because it was raining, we stayed home and We stayed home because it was raining.
Subordination can make one idea grammatically dependent on another and therefore present it as background, cause, condition, or other supporting information.
For example, Because the evidence was incomplete, the researchers repeated the experiment.
Choosing coordination or subordination can change how strongly one idea is presented as dependent on another.
Compare He was tired, so he went home with Because he was tired, he went home.
Independent clauses must be correctly coordinated or separated, while subordinate clauses must be attached to an appropriate main clause.
This prevents run-on sentences and sentence fragments.
Use coordination and subordination according to the intended grammatical relationship and maintain correct clause boundaries.
Common mistakes include comma splices, fragments beginning with subordinators, misuse of coordinating conjunctions, non-parallel coordinated elements, and using a subordinator where an independent clause is required.